
The historical origins of the Turkic people remain a subject of considerable debate, yet one of the most compelling arguments links their early development to the Xiongnu, the first great steppe empire. While the term “Turk” first appeared in the 6th century AD and written records of the Turkic language emerged in the following century, the roots of Turkic civilization may stretch back much further.
The ancestors of the Turks likely lived in the Siberian taiga as hunter-gatherers before transitioning to reindeer herding. By the mid-1st millennium BC, proto-Turkic tribes moved southward, settling between the Altai Mountains and Lake Baikal, particularly in the Orkhon Valley—revered in later Turkish legends as Ötüken, their ancestral homeland. This aligns with findings from Bryan K. Miller, who emphasizes the Xiongnu’s role as pioneers in steppe empire-building (cf. Xiongnu: The World’s First Nomadic Empire, 2024).
Before the emergence of the Xiongnu, the Eurasian steppe was dominated by Indo-European groups such as the Scythians and Tocharians. However, a shift occurred when a confederation of proto-Turkic and proto-Mongolic groups gained power, resulting in the formation of the Xiongnu empire under the leadership of Touman (Teoman) in the 3rd century BC. His successor, Modu Chanyu (Mete), solidified Xiongnu dominance through military and political prowess, instituting a centralized rule that later Turkic empires would emulate.
One of the key debates surrounding the Xiongnu is their linguistic and ethnic identity. Christopher Atwood (“Huns and Xiongnu: New Thoughts on an Old Problem”, in Dubitando: Studies in History and Culture in Honor of Donald Ostrowski, 2012) highlights the difficulty in directly linking the Xiongnu to the Huns or later Turkic groups due to the lack of definitive linguistic evidence. However, many scholars propose that the Xiongnu confederation included early Turkic, Mongolic, and possibly Indo-European elements. The administrative and military structures they implemented—such as the decimal organization of troops—became a hallmark of later Turkic and Mongol empires.
The governance structure established by the Xiongnu strongly influenced future nomadic polities. As Miller asserts, the Xiongnu provided a template for empire that was later perfected by the Göktürks and Mongols. The system of dual kingship, left and right divisions of power, and elite noble titles like Chanyu found echoes in later Turkic Qaghanates. Even religious practices like Tengrism, which appeared during the Xiongnu period, became central to Turkic identity.
While some theories suggest a direct link between the Xiongnu and the Huns who later invaded Europe, modern research, cautions against oversimplified ethnic equivalences. However, it is clear that elements of Xiongnu culture, political structures, and military strategies influenced later steppe empires, including those founded by Turkic groups.
In an article for “East Journal” (Gli xiongnu e le origini della civiltà turca, in Italian), C. Pallard examines the connections between the Xiongnu and the early Turkic civilization, highlighting a pivotal moment in this culture in the rise of Teoman, who established the Xiongnu tribal confederation. His son Mete expanded and centralized the Xiongnu empire, achieving military victories over the Yuezhi and imposing dominance over China. Mete’s military and political strategies closely parallel the legendary deeds of Oğuz Khan, the mythical forefather of the Turks, suggesting a possible historical basis for later Turkic traditions.
According to the author, the Xiongnu Empire, which lasted for four centuries, established political and religious institutions—such as tribal federation governance and Tengrism—that would later be characteristic of Turkic states. While the exact linguistic composition of the Xiongnu remains uncertain, Pallard notes that when the first explicitly Turkic political entities emerged, they claimed direct continuity with the Xiongnu legacy. He concludes that without the Xiongnu’s foundational structures, Turkic civilization as it developed in the medieval period would not have been possible.